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"AF metabolites, presumably though the CYP and SULT driven bioactivation pathway, have been shown to be DNA damaging agents, inducing DNA protein crosslinks, cytokeratin-RNA crosslinks, phosphorylation of p53, increased expression of p21, gamma-Histone 2AX (gamma-H2AX), reactive oxygen species mediated apoptosis, and S-phase arrest in sensitive populations of cells [XREF_BIBR, XREF_BIBR, XREF_BIBR, XREF_BIBR, XREF_BIBR, XREF_BIBR - XREF_BIBR]."